Wayzata World Factbook 1994/World Factbook - 1994 Edition - Wayzata Technology (1994).iso/pc/text/txtfiles/sudan.bkg

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#CARD:Sudan:Background Notes
US DEPARTMENT OF STATE BACKGROUND NOTES:  SUDAN

March 1991
Official Name:  Republic of the Sudan

PROFILE
People
Nationality:  Noun and adjective-Sudanese (sing. and pl.).  Population
(1989 est.):  25 million; 25% urban.  Annual growth rate (1987 est.):
3%.  Ethnic groups:  Arab-African, black African.  Religions:  Islam,
indigenous beliefs (southern Sudan), Christianity.  Language:  Arabic
(official), English, tribal languages.  Education:  Years compulsory-9.
Attendance-50%.  Literacy-20%.  Health:  Infant mortality
rate-112/1,000.  Life expectancy-49 yrs.  Work force (6 million, 1982):
Agriculture-78%.  Industry and commerce-10%.  Government-6%.

Geography
Area:  2.5 million sq. km. (967,500 sq. mi.); almost one-third size of
continental US.  Cities:  Capital-Khartoum.  Other cities-Port Sudan,
Kassala, Kosti, Juba (capital of southern region).  No current accurate
population statistics available.  Terrain:  Generally flat with
mountains in east and west.  Climate:  Desert in north to tropical in
south.

Government
Type:  Military dictatorship.  Independence:  January 1, 1956.
Constitution: 1985 provisional constitution amended, now suspended.
Branches:  Executive authority is shared by the 15-member Revolutionary
Command Council (RCC) and the cabinet.  The Chairman of the RCC is
concurrently chief of state (president) and prime minister.
Judicial-Supreme Court, attorney general, civil, shari'a (Islamic),
special revolutionary courts, and tribal courts; special investigative
commissions.
Administrative subdivisions:  5 northern regions, 3 southern regions;
each region, 2 or more provinces.
Political parties:  All political parties banned following June 30,
1989, military coup.
Central government budget (1990 est.):  $1.5 billion.
Defense (1990  est.):  30% of GNP.
Flag:  Horizontal red, white, and black stripes with green triangle on
staff side.

Economy
GDP (1988 est.):  $9 billion. GDP Annual growth rate (1990 est.): 0.0%.
Per capita income GDP (1990 est.):  $300.  Avg. annual inflation rate
(1989): 75%, (1990 est.) 45%.
Natural resources:  Modest reserves of oil, iron ore, copper, chrome,
and other industrial metals.
Agriculture (40% of GNP):  Products-cotton, peanuts, sorghum, sesame
seeds, gum arabic, sugar cane, livestock.
Industry:  Types-textiles, cement, cotton ginning, edible oil and sugar
refining.
Trade (1988 est.):  Exports-$550 million:  cotton, sorghum, peanuts, gum
arabic, sesame seeds.  Major markets-Egypt, Persian Gulf states, Saudi
Arabia.  Imports-$1 billion:  oil and petroleum products, wheat,
agricultural inputs and machinery, industrial inputs and manufactured
goods.  Major suppliers-Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Gulf states.
Official exchange rates:  4.5 Sudanese pounds (SL)=US$1; official
commercial rate is SL 12=US$1.
Fiscal year:  July 1-June 30.

Membership in  International Organizations
 UN and several of its specialized and related agencies, Arab League,
Organization of African Unity (OAU), Organization of the Islamic
Conference (OIC), Non-Aligned Movement, Group of 77.

PEOPLE
 In Sudan's 1981 census, the population was calculated at 21 million.
Current estimates range to 25 million.  The population of metropolitan
Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) is growing,
and ranges from 3-4 million, including over 1 million displaced persons
from the southern war zone.
 Sudan has two distinct cultures-Arab and black African-and effective
collaboration between them is a major problem.
 The five northern regions cover most of Sudan and include most urban
centers.  Most of the estimated 18 million Sudanese who live in this
area are Arabic-speaking Muslims.  Among these are several distinct
tribal groups; the Kababish of northern Kordofan, a camel-raising
people; the Jaalin and Shaigiyya groups of settled tribes living along
rivers; the semi-nomadic Baggara of Kordofan and Darfur; the Hamitic
Beja in the Red Sea area and Nubians of the northern Nile area, some of
whom have been resettled on the Atbara River; and the Negroid Nuba of
southern Kordofan and Fur in the western reaches of the country.
 The southern region has a population of about 4-6 million and a
predominantly rural, subsistence economy.  Here the Sudanese practice
mainly indigenous, traditional beliefs, although Christian missionaries
have converted some.  The south also contains many tribal groups and
uses many more languages than the north.  The Dinka (pop. 1 million or
more) is the largest of the many black African tribes in Sudan.  Along
with the Shilluk and the Nuer, they are among the Nilotic tribes.  The
Azande, Bor, and Jo Luo are "Sudanic" tribes in the west, and the Acholi
and Lotuhu live in the extreme south, extending into Uganda.

HISTORY
 Sudan was a collection of small, independent states from the beginning
of the Christian era until 1820-21, when Egypt conquered and unified the
northern portion of the country.  Although Egypt claimed all of present
Sudan during most of the 19th century, it was unable to establish
effective control of southern Sudan, which remained an area of
fragmented tribes subject to frequent attacks by slave raiders.
 In 1881, a religious leader named Muhammad Ahmed ibn Abdalla proclaimed
himself the Mahdi, or "expected one," and began to unify tribes in
western and central Sudan.  His followers took on the name "Ansars,"
which they continue to use today. Taking advantage of conditions
resulting from Ottoman-Egyptian exploitation and mal-administration, the
Mahdi led a nationalist revolt culminating in the fall of Khartoum in
1885.  The Mahdi died shortly thereafter, but his state survived until
overwhelmed by an Anglo-Egyptian force under Kitchener in 1898.  Sudan
was proclaimed a condominium in 1899 under British-Egyptian
administration.  While maintaining the appearance of joint
administration, the British formulated policies, and supplied most of
the top administrators.

Independence
 In February 1953, the United Kingdom and Egypt concluded an agreement
providing for Sudanese self-government and self-determination.  The
transitional period toward independence began with the inauguration of
the first parliament in 1954.  With the consent of the British and
Egyptian governments, Sudan achieved independence on January 1, 1956,
under a provisional constitution.  The United States was among the first
foreign powers to recognize the new state.
 The National Unionist Party (NUP), under Prime Minister Ismail
el-Azhari, dominated the first cabinet, which was soon replaced by a
coalition of conservative political forces.  In 1958, following a period
of economic difficulties and political maneuvering that paralyzed public
administration, Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. Ibrahim Abboud overthrew the
parliamentary regime in a bloodless coup.
 Gen. Abboud did not carry out his promises to return Sudan to civilian
government, however, and popular resentment against army rule led to a
wave of riots and strikes in late October 1964 that forced the military
to relinquish power.
 The Abboud regime was followed by a provisional civilian government
until parliamentary elections in April 1965 led to a coalition
government of the Umma and National Unionist Parties under Prime
Minister Muhammad Ahmad Mahjoub.  Between 1966 and 1969, Sudan had a
series of governments that proved unable either to agree on a permanent
constitution or to cope with problems of factionalism, economic
stagnation, and ethnic dissidence.
 Dissatisfaction culminated in a second military coup on May 25, 1969.
The coup leader, Col. Gaafar Muhhamad Nimeiri, became prime minister,
and the new regime abolished parliament and outlawed all political
parties.
 Disputes between Marxist and non-Marxist elements within the ruling
military coalition resulted in a briefly successful coup in July 1971,
led by the Sudanese Communist Party.  Several days later, anti-communist
military elements restored Nimeiri to power.
 In 1976, the Ansars mounted a bloody but unsuccessful coup attempt.  In
July 1977, President Nimeiri met with Ansar leader Sadiq al-Mahdi,
opening the way for reconciliation.  Hundreds of political prisoners
were released, and in August a general amnesty was announced for all
opponents of Nimeiri's government.
 In September 1983, as part of an Islamicization campaign, President
Nimeiri announced his decision to incorporate traditional Islamic
punishments drawn from the Shari'a (Islamic law) into the penal code.
This was controversial even among Muslim groups.  After questioning
Nimeiri's credentials to Islamicize Sudanese society, Ansar leader Sadiq
al-Mahdi was placed under house arrest.  On April 26, 1984, President
Nimeiri declared a state of emergency, in part to ensure that Shari'a
was applied more broadly.  Most constitutionally guaranteed rights were
suspended.  In the North, emergency courts later known as "decisive
justice courts," were established, with summary jurisdiction over
criminal cases.  Amputations for theft and public lashings for alcohol
possession were common during the state of emergency.  Southerners and
other non-Muslims living in the north were also subjected to these
punishments.
 In September 1984, President Nimeiri announced the end of the state of
emergency and dismantled the emergency courts but soon promulgated a new
judiciary act which continued many of the practices of the emergency
courts.  Despite Nimeiri's public assurances that the rights of
non-Muslims would be respected, southerners and other non-Muslims
remained deeply suspicious.
 Early 1985 saw serious shortages of fuel and bread in Khartoum, a
growing insurgency in the south, drought and famine, and an increasingly
difficult refugee burden.  In early April, during Nimeiri's absence from
the country, massive demonstrations, first triggered by price increases
on bread and other staples, broke out in Khartoum.
 On April 6, 1985, senior military officers led by Gen. Suwar el Dahab
mounted a coup.  Among the first acts of the new government was to
suspend the 1983 constitution and disband Nimeiri's Sudan Socialist
Union.  A 15-member transitional military council was named, chaired by
Gen. Suwar el Dahab.  In consultation with an informal conference of
political parties, unions, and professional organizations known as the
"Gathering," the council appointed an interim civilian cabinet, headed
by Prime Minister Dr. El Gizouli Defalla.
 Elections were held in April 1986, and the transitional military
council turned over power to a civilian government as promised.  The
government, headed by Prime Minister Sadiq al Mahdi of the Umma Party,
consisted of a coalition of the Umma, DUP, and several southern parties.
 This coalition dissolved and reformed several times over the next few
years, with Sadiq al Mahdi and his Umma party always in a central role.
 During this period, the economy continued to deteriorate.  When prices
of basic goods were increased in 1988, riots ensued, and the price
increases were cancelled.  The civil war in the south was particularly
divisive (see "Civil Strife" below).  When Sadiq refused to approve a
peace plan reached by the DUP and the Sudanese Peoples Liberation Army
(SPLA) in November 1988, the DUP left the government.  The new
government consisted essentially of the Umma and the Islamic
fundamentalist National Islamic Front (NIF).
    In February 1989, the army presented Sadiq with an ultimatum:  he
could move toward peace or be thrown out.  He formed a new government
with the DUP and approved the SPLA/DUP agreement.  On June 30, 1989,
however, military officers under then-Colonel Omar al Bashir replaced
the government with the Revolutionary Command Council for National
Salvation (RCC), a junta comprised of 15 military officers assisted by a
civilian cabinet.  General al Bashir is president and chief of state,
prime minister and chief of the armed forces.

Civil Strife
 In 1955, southern resentment of northern domination culminated in a
mutiny among southern troops in Equatoria Province.  For the next 17
years, the southern region experienced civil strife, and various
southern leaders agitated for regional autonomy or outright secession.
 This chronic state of insurgency against the central government was
suspended early in 1972 after the signing of the Addis Ababa accords
granting southern Sudan wide regional autonomy on internal matters, but
a 1983 decree by President Nimeiri dividing the south into three regions
revived southern opposition and militant insurgency.  After the 1985
coup, the new government rescinded this decree and made other
significant overtures aimed at reconciling north and south.  In May
1986, the Sadiq al Mahdi government began peace negotiations with the
SPLA, led by Col. John Garang de Mabior  In that year the SPLA and a
number of Sudanese political parties met in Ethiopia and agreed to the
"Koka Dam" declaration, which called for abolishing Islamic law and
convening a constitutional conference.  In 1988, the SPLA and the DUP
agreed on a peace plan calling for the abolition of military pacts with
Egypt and Libya, freezing of Islamic laws, an end to the state of
emergency, and a cease-fire.  A constitutional conference would then be
convened.
 Following an ultimatum from the armed forces in February 1989, the
Sadiq government approved this peace plan and engaged in several rounds
of talks with the SPLA.  A constitutional conference was tentatively
planned for September 1989.  The military government which took over on
June 30, 1989, however, repudiated the DUP-SPLA agreement and stated it
wished to negotiate with the SPLA without preconditions.  Negotiating
sessions in August and December 1989 brought little progress.
     The SPLA is in control of large areas of Equatoria, Bahr al Ghazal
and Upper Nile provinces and also operates in the southern portions of
Darfur, Kordofan and Blue Nile provinces.  The government controls a
number of the major southern towns and cities, including Juba, Wau, and
Malakal.  An informal cease-fire in May broke down in October 1989, and
fighting has continued since then.
 The ongoing civil war has displaced over 2 million southerners.  Some
fled into southern cities, such as Juba; others trekked as far north as
Khartoum and even on into Ethiopia.  These people were unable to grow
food or earn money to feed themselves, and malnutrition and starvation
became widespread.
 Following an international outcry, the Sadiq al Mahdi government in
March 1989 agreed with the UN and donor nations (including the US) on a
plan called Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), under which some 100,000
tons of food was moved into both government and SPLA-held areas in
southern Sudan, and widespread starvation was averted.  OLS was
suspended when the informal cease-fire broke down in late 1989.
Following prolonged negotiations, Phase II of OLS to cover 1990 was
approved by both the government and the SPLA in March of 1990.  In 1991,

Sudan faces a food shortage across the entire country because of two
consecutive years of drought; 7-9 million people are believed to be at
risk, and over 1 million tons of grain are needed.  The US, the UN, and
other donors are attempting to mount a coordinated international relief
effort in both northern and southern Sudan to meet this need.

GOVERNMENT
 Since 1983 Sudan has been divided into five regions in the north and
three in the south, each headed by a governor.  Since the 1985 coup,
regional assemblies have been suspended.  Each region is now under the
control of a military governor.  All regions have limited budgetary
powers and depend on the central government for economic support.
Khartoum province, comprising the capital and outlying districts, is
administered by a special commissioner.

Principal Government Officials
President, Prime Minister, and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command
Council--Lt. Gen. Omar Hassan al Bashir
Deputy Prime Minister--Maj. Gen. Al Zubeir Muhammad Salih
Foreign Affairs--Ali Sahloul
Ambassador to the United States--Abdalla Ahmed Abdalla
Ambassador to the UN--Maj. Gen. (ret.) Joseph Lagu

ECONOMY
 Sudan's primary resources are agricultural.  Although the country is
trying to diversify its cash crops, cotton accounts for nearly 50% of
export earnings.  Another large export crop is gum arabic, used in
pharmaceuticals, food preparation, and printing, with Sudan producing
four-fifths of the world's supply.  Grain sorghum (dura) is the
principal food crop, and wheat is grown for domestic consumption.  Other
crops such as sesame seeds and peanuts are cultivated for domestic
consumption and increasingly for export.  Livestock production has vast
potential, and many animals, particularly camels and sheep, are exported
to Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and other Arab countries.
 The inadequate transportation system and the high cost of hauling
agricultural products over great distances are major hindrances to
economic development.  Sudan's only paved highways link Khartoum to Port
Sudan and the capital to Kosti and the White Nile.  Completed in
mid-1980, the Khartoum-Port Sudan road has greatly increased commerce
between these cities.  Southern transportation is vulnerable to bad
weather.  Programs are underway to improve roads in southern and western
Sudan.
 At present, the country's transportation facilities consist of one
4,800-kilometer (2,784-mi.), single-track railroad with a feeder line,
supplemented by river steamers, Sudan Airways, and about 1,900 km.
(1,200 mi.) of paved or gravel roads.
 Sudan has made large investments in growing cotton under various
irrigation and pump plans, particularly the Gezira scheme, south of
Khartoum between the White and Blue Niles.  Rain-fed agriculture,
primarily millet, sesame seeds, peanuts, and short-staple cotton, has
had uneven success; there is progress in developing the rain-fed areas
for mechanized agriculture.  These lands are promising, provided the
problems of transportation and irrigation to supplement rainfall can be
resolved.
 Sudan's limited industrial development consists principally of
agricultural processing and various light industries located at Khartoum
North.  Although Sudan is reputed to have great mineral resources,
exploration has been quite limited, and the country's real potential is
unknown.  Small quantities of asbestos, chromium, and mica are exploited
commercially.  Extensive petroleum exploration began in the mid-1970s
and might eventually produce all of Sudan's needs.  Significant finds
were made in the Upper Nile region, but the ongoing civil war in that
area has forced suspension of exploration and development activity
there.
 Sudan has an installed electrical generating capacity of 300 megawatts
(MW), of which 180 MW is hydroelectric and the rest, thermal.  More than
70% of the hydropower comes from the Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile grid.
 Various projects are underway for expanding Roseires power station and
for developing thermal and other sources of energy.
 The United States, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, and other Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OAPEC) nations traditionally have supplied most of Sudan's economic
assistance.  Sudan's role as an economic link between Arab and African
countries is demonstrated by the location in Khartoum of the Arab Bank
for African Economic Development.  The World Bank has been the largest
source of development loans.  Current investment by US companies,
largely in oil exploration, exceeds $1 billion.
 Sudan will require extraordinary levels of program assistance and debt
relief to manage a foreign debt exceeding $13 billion, more than the
country's entire annual GDP.  Since the late 1970s, the IMF, World Bank,
and key donors have worked closely to promote reforms to counter the
effect of inefficient economic policies and practices.  By mid-1984 a
combination of factors-including drought, inflation, and confused
application of Islamic law-reduced donor disbursements, and capital
flight led to a serious foreign-exchange crisis and increasing shortages
of imported inputs and commodities.
 The government fell out of compliance with the IMF standby program and
accumulated substantial arrearages on repurchase obligations to the IMF.
 A     4-year economic reform plan was announced by the Sadiq government
in 1988 but was not pursued.  The government of General Omar al Bashir
announced its own economic reform plan in 1989 and began implementing a
3-year economic restructuring program on July 1, 1990, designed to
reduce the public sector deficit, end subsidies, privatize state
enterprises, and encourage new foreign and domestic investment.  It
appears unlikely, however, that the IMF, the World Bank and the donor
nations will find these steps sufficient to embark on a coordinated
program for Sudan.  Sudan remains the world's largest debtor to the IMF,
with accumulated arrears of over $1.3 billion.
 Sudan continues to suffer from a severe shortage of foreign exchange,
as imports exceed exports by more than two to one.  Exports are largely
stagnant.  The small industrial sector remains in the doldrums, and
Sudan's inadequate and declining infrastructure inhibits economic
recovery.  Foreign exchange rate policies discourage remittances from
Sudanese working abroad.

DEFENSE
 The Sudanese People's Armed Forces is a 60,000-member army supported by
a small air force and navy.  It is a defensive force, having the
additional duty of maintaining internal security.  Some rebels currently
fighting in the South are former army members.  Sudan's military
services are hampered by limited and outdated equipment.  In the 1980's,
the US worked  with the Sudanese government to upgrade equipment with
special emphasis on airlift capacity and logistics.  All US military
assistance was terminated following the military coup of June 30, 1989.
Sudan has most recently received military assistance from Iraq, China,
and Libya.

FOREIGN RELATIONS
 Sudan in recent years has tried to steer a non-aligned course, courting
western aid and seeking rapprochement with Arab states, while
maintaining cooperative ties with Libya.
 Solidarity with other Arab countries has been a feature of Sudan's
foreign policy.  When the Arab-Israeli war began in June 1967, Sudan
declared war on Israel.  However, in the early and mid-1970s, Sudan
gradually shifted its stance and was supportive of the Camp David
process.
 Relations between Sudan and Libya deteriorated in the early 1970s and
reached a low in October 1981, when Libyan leader  began a policy of
cross-border raids into western Sudan.  After the 1985 coup, the
military government resumed diplomatic relations with Libya, as part of
a policy of improving relations with neighboring and Arab states.  In
early 1990, Libya and Sudan announced that they would seek "unity."  It
is not clear how or when this unity will be implemented.

US-SUDANESE RELATIONS
 Sudan broke diplomatic ties with the United States in June 1967,
following the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli war.  Relations improved
after July 1971, when the Sudanese Communist Party attempted to
overthrow President Nimeiri, and Nimeiri suspected Soviet involvement.
US assistance for resettlement of refugees following the February 1972
peace settlement in the south added further impetus to the improvement
of relations.  Diplomatic ties were restored on June 25, 1972.
 On March 1, 1973, Palestinian terrorists of the "Black September"
organization murdered US Ambassador Cleo A. Noel and Deputy Chief of
Mission Curtis G. Moore.  Sudanese officials arrested the terrorists and
tried and convicted them on murder charges.  In June 1974, however, the
Sudanese government released them to the custody of the Egyptian
government.  The US ambassador to Sudan was withdrawn in protest.
Although the US Ambassador returned to Khartoum in November, relations
with Sudan remained static until late 1975 and early 1976, when
President Nimeiri mediated the release of 10 American hostages being
held by Eritrean insurgents in rebel strongholds in northern Ethiopia.
In 1976, the United States decided to resume economic assistance to
Sudan.
 In late 1985, there was a reduction in staff at the American embassy in
Khartoum because of the presence in Khartoum of a large contingent of
Libyan terrorists.  In April 1986, relations with Sudan deteriorated
when the United States bombed Tripoli.  A US embassy employee was shot
on April 16, 1986.  Immediately following this incident, all
non-essential personnel and all dependents left for 6 months.
 US interests in Sudan center around peace and relief.  The US has
worked closely with the governments of both Sadiq al Mahdi and General
Omar al- Bashir to see that emergency relief assistance is provided to
those displaced by the ongoing civil war.  Sudan's position during the
Iraq/Kuwait crisis strained relations with the United States.  Sudan
stated that Iraq should not have invaded Kuwait, but it  was equally
critical of the presence of Western forces on Islamic holy lands.

Principal US Officials
Ambassador--James R. Cheek
Deputy Chief of Mission--Joseph P. O'Neill
USAID Director--Frederick Machmer
Public Affairs Officer--Mary Jeffers

 The US Embassy in Sudan is located at Shari'a Ali Abdul Latif, PO Box
699, Khartoum (tel. 74700, 74611).  Hours are 7 am-3 pm Sunday through
Thursday.   US Marine security guards at the embassy can be contacted at
any time in an emergency.

Travel Notes
 Customs:  Visas and yellow fever immunizations are required.  Health
requirements change; check latest information.  Travelers must complete
a currency declaration listing all currency and other valuables in their
possession.  Money should be declared upon entry and exchanged only at
official exchange offices or banks.  Keep all receipts.  Permits are
required for photography.
 Climate and clothing:  Washable, lightweight fabrics, suitable for a
desert climate, and conservative styles are recommended.  Dry-cleaning
facilities are limited in Khartoum and unavailable elsewhere.
 Health:  Facilities are limited.  Water is not potable and should be
purified before drinking.  Food should  be well-cooked.  Cholera,
typhoid, tetanus, and polio immunizations, gamma globulin shots, and
Aralen tablets are recommended.
 Telecommunications:  Limited international telephone and telegraph
service is available in Khartoum and Port Sudan.  There is no
international direct dial service to Sudan.  Sudan is seven time zones
ahead of Eastern Standard Time.
 Transportation:  Sudan is connected by international airlines with
Europe, Saudi Arabia, and other countries in Africa.  Bookings should be
made in advance.  Domestic service is available for flights within
Sudan.  Travel by road or train outside Khartoum is limited.  Taxis are
available in Khartoum, Port Sudan, and Juba.  Visitors require
government permission for all travel outside of the Khartoum area.
 National holidays:  Sudanese government offices are open
Saturday-Thursday.   The US Embassy is also closed on holidays.
Travelers should check ahead for holiday  schedule.

 Published by the United States Department of State --  Bureau of Public
Affairs  -- Office of  Public Communication --  Editorial Division --
Washington, DC -- March  1991 -- Editor:  Peter  A. Knecht
 Department of State Publication  8022 -- Background Notes Series  --
This material is in the public domain and may  be reprinted without
permission; citation of this source is appreciated.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC  20402.(###)


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